Learning Theories

Learning TheoriesThe thought of how we learn can be described in a battalion of different ways. Andrew Pollard describes larning â€Å"as the procedure by which cognition, constructs, accomplishments and attitudes are acquired, understood, applied and extended. Children besides discover their feeling towards themselves, towards each other and towards larning itself. Learning is therefore partially a cognitive, partially societal and affective.† Therefore a brooding professional must concentrate on these major concerns by concentrating on student public presentation within course of study based undertakings and in the long term developing each kid ‘s ability to come on as a successful scholar. Another of import facet for the instructor is the ability to decently understand the procedure of acquisition, as this should enable the professional to cognize best how to prosecute students in the acquisition experience. This thought of acquisition is non new and has been around since the beginning of world, be that the passing on cognition of fire devising to the acquisition of basic linguistic communication within early adult male. It is merely in more recent times that bookmans have attempted to make theories which describe this act that most people carry out without truly believing about. Some of these theories will be looked at in this piece, nevertheless it is of import to observe that the thought of one theory that fits all persons is in its ego a misnomer, as people and the universe they live in alteration faster than these theories can maintain up.Multiple intelligences: Howard GardnerThis theory of Multiple Intelligences was suggested in 1983 by the American psychologist Howard Gardener in his book Frames of the Mind. Gardner ‘s theory proposed that scholars have peculiar types of intelligences that can be classified, and each person has differing degrees of competency within each int elligence type or profile.Gardner identified 8 intelligences:Linguistic – the capacity to utilize words efficaciously Logical-mathematical – the capacity to utilize Numberss efficaciously Spatial – the ability to comprehend the visual-spatial universe accurately Bodily-kinaesthetic – expertness in utilizing one ‘s whole organic structure to show thoughts and feelings. Musical – the capacity to comprehend, discriminate, transform and express musical signifiers. Interpersonal – the ability to comprehend and do differentiations in the tempers, purposes and feelings of other people. Intrapersonal – self-knowledge and the ability to move on that cognition. Naturalistic – expertness in the acknowledgment and categorization of the legion species. ( Definitions from Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom – Thomas Armstrong ) Gardner ‘s theory proposed that the thought of I.Q. does non take into history the broad scope of abilities worlds display. In the multiple intelligences theory Gardner states that each intelligence profile can be improved to a high degree and suggests that learning should integrate all intelligences into the schoolroom so as to provide to a broad scope of abilities and intelligences. This will enable the scholar to larn in a manner that bests suits his or her single intelligence profile. Gardner highlights the importance of the instructor admiting that persons have different degrees of competency within certain intelligences, and suggests lessons should be planned to assist the scholar better in the intelligences in which they are weaker. This thought has been reinforced by research that proposes intelligence is developed though chance and the scholar ‘s experience ( Shayer and Addy, 2002 ) Some of the thoughts behind this theory of multiple intelligences have been criticized in the psychological science and educational theory communities ( White, 1998 ) , a common unfavorable judgment is that the theory is based on the theorist personal sentiment. Psychologist such as George Miller believe Gardner ‘s theory is based on his intuition and provinces that the theory lacks empirical informations. Gardner ‘s responds to his critics saying. â€Å" The testimonies and s are legion plenty from tonss of different topographic points to propose it ‘s deserving taking earnestly. † There is a batch of anecdotal grounds in support of MI, but no formal surveies. At the really least, many believe that MI theory virtues farther probe and large-scale research† . Other unfavorable judgments are based on instructors seting students into fixed intelligence profiles. This does non let the scholar to better in intelligences in which they are deemed to be less ab le, taking to a non-inclusive environment.Constructivism and Social Constructivism: Piaget VygotskyConstructivism theory suggests that people learn through an interaction between believing and experience, and through the consecutive development of more complex cognitive constructions ( Pollard 2002 ) . The most influential constructivist theoretician was Piaget. Jean Piaget ( 1896-1980 ) was a Swiss psychologist, philosopher and instructor. He taught at Grange-Aux-Belles school for male childs, he noticed when taging the students work that immature kids would systematically give the incorrect replies to certain inquiries. When he looked closer at these consequences he found that there was a form to the errors that immature kids made, that older kids did non. This led him to believe that there was an built-in difference in the manner younger people learn than that of grownups. Piaget proposed through a procedure of â€Å"accommodation and â€Å"assimilation† kids construct their ain world by agencies of experimenting on their ain environment. Piaget proposed that there are four cardinal developmental phases in which kids process their experience. 1 Sensorimotor – From birth to age 2 old ages. The baby builds an apprehension of himself or herself and world ( and how things work ) through interactions with the environment. It is able to distinguish between itself and other objects. Learning takes topographic point via assimilation ( the organisation of information and absorbing it into bing scheme ) and adjustment ( when an object can non be assimilated and the schemes have to be modified to include the object. 2 Pre-operational phase – From 2 to 7 old ages The kid is non yet able to gestate abstractly and needs concrete physical state of affairss. Objects are classified in simple ways, particularly by of import characteristics 3 Concrete operations phase – ( 7 to 12 old ages ) . As physical experience accumulates, adjustment is increased. The kid begins to believe abstractly and gestate, making logical constructions that explain his or her physical experiences. 4 Formal operations stage – ( 12 to 15 old ages ) Cognition reaches its concluding signifier. By this phase, the individual no longer requires concrete objects to do rational opinions. He or she is capable of deductive and conjectural logical thinking. His or her ability for abstract thought is really similar to an grownup. The effect of Piaget work has lead to the thought of a kid centred attack to instruction, this is particularly true in Primary school categories. It has promoted the usage of varied and stimulating schoolroom environments from which kids can deduce ambitious experiences. Some restrictions of Piagets work have been highlighted, one such unfavorable judgment is that due to the fact that the abilitiy of a kid to larn is structured into phases, it can take to the under appraisal of their capacities. Surveies have shown that kids ‘s capacities are much greater than those suggested by Piaget ( Tizard and Hughes ) Another unfavorable judgment of Piagets work is that as it can be hard to run into the demands of all persons in a category, the demand for a trim acquisition experience for each single category can take to a damaging state of affairs whereby the instructor spends so much clip pull offing the category room they are non able to pass adequate clip learning their students. Social Constructivism is a alteration of Piaget ‘s theory and was proposed by Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky. He believed that Piaget ‘s theory did non take into history a kid ‘s societal interactions which he believed besides had an consequence on cognitive development. Vygotsky ‘s theory proposed that. * interaction and civilization have a dramatic consequence on cognitive development. * Cognitive procedures ( linguistic communication, thought and concluding ) develop though societal interaction. * Learning is a shared societal activity embedded in schoolroom interactions. * The relationship between scholar and instructor is important. Within Vygotsky ‘s theory he introduces the thought of the zone of proximal development ( ZPD ) in larning this is stated as. â€Å" The distance between the existent development degree as determined by independent job resolution and the degree of possible development as determined through job work outing under grownup counsel or in coaction with more capable equals † ( Vygotsky, 1978, p. 86 ) . This helping the scholar by a more capable other has been termed â€Å"scaffolding† . Scaffolding is a procedure whereby the scholar is provided with construction and support which allows them to understand undertaking they could non make entirely. As the scholar develops an apprehension of the undertaking the staging can be removed this consequences in â€Å"more sophisticated cognitive systems†¦ the system of cognition itself becomes portion of the scaffold or societal support for the new learning† ( Raymond, 2000, p. 176 ) . Curriculum for Excellence lends to a great extent from these thoughts with its AifL and inclusion enterprises. AifL formative appraisal constabularies should convey more balance to the place of more knowing other as it aims to hold category equals every bit good as the instructor make fulling this function. The active function of the scholar in this theory should let for a better apprehension of what is being taught and why ensuing in an improved acquisition environment.Theories used in the schoolroomMultiple IntelligencesDuring my clip on SE1A I tried to suit a figure of different intelligences into my lesson. During planning of any lesson I would implement different manners of acquisition, this was non ever possible due to resource and clip restraints, nevertheless in the cases where it was possible I noticed positive consequences. Whilst taking a S1 category covering human organic structure systems, I was able to utilize a choice of larning stuffs. I made certain that all students were exposed to all larning types, the purpose of the lesson was to let all students to make the success standards utilizing three different larning manners. The manners I adopted were the usage of a picture ( Visual ) theoretical accounts of the human organic structure ( kinesthetic ) and group treatment ( Linguistic-Intrapersonal ) . I found this to be a successful lesson as during plenary students were able to joint which larning manner they found most good and which they found least. With this in head I will go on to use the multiple intelligences theory when be aftering my lessons and will seek to suit as many larning intelligences as possible.Social constructivismI implemented societal constructivist theory when puting a undertaking to a S1 category I was learning, the category was split into groups A, B, C, D, E each group was given the undertaking of happening out about a particular cell type/s, during this clip I moved around the category staging. Once the group collected all the information that was required, the groups were rearranged so each member of the group had looked at a different cell. The purpose of the lesson was for each member of the group to learn the remainder of the group what they had found out. Each group successfully completed the acquisition and success standards. The whole category were engaged and there was a high grade of larning taking topographic point, holding seen this theory in pattern I will be go oning to utilize and better it in my pattern.Appraisal schemesIn recent old ages appraisal has become the primary focal point in instruction. This has occurred for two grounds ( Pollard 2008 ) . The first and most important has been the demand for authoritiess to hold a manner of mensurating educational end product. This was seen as a manner for parents to be able to compare between different schools trial consequences, and hence be able to do an informed pick as to what school to direct their kids to. The hope was that the publication of conference tabular arraies would promote all schools to raise criterions and invariably better on consequences to raise their place in the school evaluations tabular arraies. The 2nd ground for the increased involvement in appraisal came from the realization of the value of continual appraisal in informing instruction and bettering acquisition ( Black and William 1998 ) . Their research highlighted that appraisal can be used as a tool to find non merely what has been learned i.e . terminal of subject trials and tests, but appraisal can besides be used as a tool for acquisition.Appraisal is for Learning ( AifL )Appraisal is for larning ( AifL ) is an effort to seek and hold more balance in the Scots course of study, the over accent of summational appraisals schemes, such as terminal of subject trials and tests, does non needfully give a good indicant to the degree of larning that takes topographic point in the category room. Alternatively the usage of formative appraisal schemes should be at the nucleus of effectual instruction pattern. The work of Black and William in 1998 established that there was strong grounds that formative appraisal can raise criterions of student ‘s accomplishment. Appraisal can be said to be formative when the consequences from the instructors and pupils measuring themselves generate an adaptation to the learning methods later employed to run into the demands of the students. ( Inside the Black Box ) . It is this thought of co ntinual student instructor interactions taking to version of learning to run into the demands of single students that lies at the bosom of effectual instruction.The AifL model incorporates three different facets of appraisal:* appraisal FOR larning * appraisal OF larning * appraisal AS acquisition,Appraisal For larningThe intent of appraisal for acquisition is to â€Å"focus on the spread between where a scholar is in their acquisition, and where they need to be- the coveted goal† ( LTScotland ) . This end can be attained by a assortment of agencies such as feedback to pupils, guaranting the students are cognizant of the acquisition purposes and effectual inquiring among others. Black and William have defined appraisal for larning as â€Å"all those activities undertaken by instructors and/or by their pupils, which provide information to be used as feedback to modify the instruction and acquisition activities in which they are engaged†Key characteristicsThe cardinal characteristics as stated by LTS web site are as follows Focus on high quality interactions – Successful appraisal in the schoolroom should affect high quality interactions based on thoughtful inquiries, careful hearing and effectual responses. This should affect giving students equal â€Å"wait time† before seeking to reply inquiries as suggested by Mary Budd Rowe ( â€Å"Wait Time and Rewards as Instructional Variables, Their Influence on Language, Logic, and Fate Control, † Journal of Researching Science Teaching, vol. 11, 1974, pp. 81-94 ) . This could besides be the usage of a no custodies policy when replying inquiries Involving students in their acquisition – Focus on the extent your students and staff are to the full involved in make up one's minding following stairss in their acquisition and identifying who can assist. This should affect the scholars holding a active function in what they are being taught were possible, and giving the scholar pick in the ways which they learn as stated by Gardner ‘s theory of multiple intelligences Feedback – Students and staff are given timely feedback about the quality of their work and how to do it better. This thought of positive support sing students work it portion of Skinner ‘s behaviorist theory. The importance of both verbal and written feedback allows the scholar to cognize if there are any spreads in their cognition, but besides lets them cognize what countries they perform good in. Sharing standards – â€Å"Pupils, staff and parents are clear about what is to be learned and what success would be like† It is of import that students are made cognizant of the undertaking they are transporting out and what is to be learned by sharing larning purposes, in add-on it is besides of import that they are cognizant of what the success standards are for said undertaking. This pattern of sharing larning purposes and success standards is a critical portion of the appraisal for larning scheme and is similar to Vygotsky ‘s Zone of Proximal Development.Appraisal in the schoolroomDuring my clip on SE1A I implemented a figure of different formative appraisal techniques, I ever shared the learning purposes with the category, they would be written on the white board leting me to transport out the lesson on the smart board. This would let the students to hold a mention point which they could easy see throughout the lesson, helped the students to set the lesson into context. In my first lessons I did non portion the success standard with the students and would alternatively travel over them in the plenary, nevertheless holding spoken to co-workers I was advised that it would be good to portion the success standard with the students this was reinforced when I went back to the literature which resulted in me watching instructors Television picture ( hypertext transfer protocol: //www.teachers.tv/video/3311 ) . The sharing of acquisition and success standards did better the categories apprehension of a peculiar subject as they had a clear thought of what was expected of them. With both my S1 and S2 I implemented a no-hands up policy, I would get down by inquiring the students a inquiry I would so give them at least a minute to believe of an reply, so I would inquire an person for an reply. This took a spot of clip for the students to acquire used to as certain students were acquiring frustrated by the delay clip as they knew the reply. I think overall this scheme worked good for most kids as it gave the whole category clip to believe and as they did non cognize who would be asked the inquiry it led to a high degree of battle. In a S2 category I was responsible for a alteration lesson for an terminal of topic trial. I implemented a quiz that was to be created by the category, this involved dividing the category into groups and acquiring them to come up with inquiries refering to the subject. This worked good as there was a high degree of competition for the place of top squad. Once I had made certain the students knew the nature of the inquiries they could inquire they were left to come up with inquiries themselves. This really challenged the students as they wanted to come up with ambitious inquiries for their equals, which lead to some high degree acquisition and a high degree of battle. Other schemes I have used include the usage of a traffic visible radiation system whereby students who showed a green visible radiation for understanding a peculiar subject paired up with students who showed ruddy visible radiation. The green visible radiation students would so assist explicate facets of the subject. I will be implementing other assessment schemes in my go oning pattern, such as issue inquiries, demo me boards and head maps, while invariably bettering my oppugning accomplishments.A Curriculum For ExcellenceThe Curriculum for Excellence ( CfE ) is the new Scottish course of study to be taught in all public Scottish schools by August 2010. CfE came approximately due to the â€Å"National Argument on Education† this argument was launched by the Scots Executive in 2002, the purpose of the argument was to construct on the high quality instruction that was being provided to many of the immature people in Scotland but besides to guarantee that â€Å"all immature people were being offered a welcoming and stimulating environment for the 21st century.† ( Scots Executive, 2002 ) . The consequence of this argument was that although there were many positive facets of the current course of study there was a demand for alteration. In November 2004 the proposal for CfE was approved and published, it was implemented to broaden the acquisition experiences of immature people and to do these experiences more gratifying and relevant to a quickly altering environment. CfE has been designed to develop four chief capacities in all immature people between the ages of 3 and 18, these capacities being successful scholars, confident persons, responsible citizens and effectual subscribers. To accomplish this end CfE has 7 rules of course of study design that have been devised to guarantee the four capacities are met. 1. Challenge and enjoyment – Young people should happen their acquisition challenging, prosecuting and actuating. The lessons planned by instructors should reflect this rule by promoting high aspirations and aspirations for all students. 2. Breadth – All immature people should be educated in a wide scope of results and experiences across all course of study countries. The acquisition may be linked to vocational or other specialised contexts and will take topographic point both in the category room and other cross-curricular activities. 3. Progression – The learning experience will take topographic point between the ages of 3 – 18 and will demo a continual patterned advance within a individual curricular model. The rate of patterned advance should be tailored to the person so that it meets their demands and aptitudes, and leaves options open so that no picks within the course of study are closed prematurely. 4. Depth – The scholar should hold chances to derive a deeper apprehension for different types of thought and acquisition. As they progress through the old ages they should be able to make their full capacity by developing cognitive accomplishments, while besides deriving a better apprehension of their moral values and beliefs. 5. Personalisation and Choice – the course of study should suit every single scholars demands and back up their aptitudes and endowments. The scholar should hold an active function in how and what they learn. 6. Coherence – The course of study should be a consistent larning experience from 3-18 and there should be clear links between different facets of their acquisition. This should include lessons which can pull from different strands of larning which cross over traditional capable boundaries 7. Relevance – The leering experienced by immature people should be relevant to them. They should understand why they are larning and it relevancy to their lives both inside and outside the category room. The Curriculum for excellence purposes to give all immature people the accomplishments and cognition they need to win in the modern twenty-four hours universe. If all schools can win at developing the four capacities in all persons so it should give their students an ideal start in life and should do for a shining illustration of what can be achieved.CfE in the category roomAs the CfE results and experiences have non yet been implemented in the school I was at on SE1 I was non able to be after lessons around them. The school I was placed at was still learning the 5-14 National Guidelines, nevertheless this did non halt me from looking at the similarities in each set of results. Looking at the results it became clear that there was an convergence in both sets of results which allowed me to learn lessons which would cover both 5 to 14 and CfE outcomes. During my observations at school it became clear that in many instances the seven rules within CfE were being adhered to, this allowed me to larn from my equals how best to implement them into my categories.Challenge and EnjoymentDuring my observation clip on arrangement I was able to see precisely what was working good within certain categories, although at this point I had a batch of thoughts on how best to set together my lessons acquiring a pupils oculus position on the lesson truly helped me to take activities that would work best. I was responsible for a category of S1 students on SE1, through a series of lessons I implemented a scope of different activities to maintain the category stimulated and motivated. During the lessons the students were involved in card kinds, cut and paste activities, single paired and full category probes, smart board activities, pictures, modeling, postings doing and PowerPoint presentations. Appendix? Shows a posting made by a group of my students, the lesson involved making research for the subject in the ICT suite followed by a presentation to the remainder of the category utilizing postings or PowerPoint. All the students were actively involved in the exercising and students had the pick of how they wished to show their information. I besides left it up to the students to depute certain undertakings to each member of the squad. These activities allowed the scholars to hold an active function in their acquisition and take which method of larning they thought worked best for them. During the plenary session at the terminal of the lesson we would discourse if they had met the success standards and in some instances if their chosen type of larning manner was really effectual.RelevanceWhen be aftering my lesson I ever thought of ways to convey in existent life illustrations to the subjects I was learning. When I was covering the electrochemical series with a S3 category I was able to demo why we use different metals in bring forthing batteries, this lead to me explicating the chemical science of nomadic phone batteries and ways to widen their life. During a lesson on the respiratory system to a S1 category I was able to demo the consequence that smoke has on the lungs, and highlighted the importance of a healthy diet in digestion. During the forces topic we investigated the varying degrees of clash of different stuffs on ice, the students were so able to propose the best types of footwear to either cut down or increase clash if they were out walking on an icy w inter ‘s twenty-four hours.Literacy and numeracyLiteracyWithin CfE literacy had been highlighted as a nucleus accomplishment which is to be embedded throughout the course of study regardless of the topic. Literacy is defined as â€Å"the set of accomplishments which allows an person to prosecute to the full in society and in acquisition, through the different signifiers of linguistic communication, and the scope of texts, which society values and discoveries useful.† ( LTS ) Bettering literacy accomplishments is of critical importance as it enables immature people to â€Å"develop accomplishments for acquisition, accomplishments for life and accomplishments for work, † ( www.ltscotland.org.uk/curriculumforexcellence/buildingthecurriculum/entitlements/skills/index.asp ) Literacy skills enable immature people to better understand and interact with their topics in the course of study, non merely this but these accomplishments are movable to the out of school environment, be that the work topographic point or in mundane life. If a student has problem with literacy accomplishments this can take to a deficiency of patterned advance in a peculiar topic, the feeling that the instructor may hold is that the student is non engagement in the topic. However the root of the job is that the students have hapless reading authorship or listening accomplishments. The results for literacy are: Reading, Writing, Listening and Talking CfE demands that all practicians engage with bettering degrees of literacy, as the betterment in literacy will ensue in an increased apprehension of all topics within the school course of study. By guaranting that all practicians take duty for literacy within schools the student will hold the chance to develop their accomplishments for acquisition, accomplishments for life and accomplishments for the work topographic point.NumeracyAs with Literacy, numeracy is besides a nucleus accomplishment within CfE â€Å"All instructors have duty for advancing the development of numeracy. With an increased accent upon numeracy for all immature people, instructors will necessitate to be after to revisit and consolidate numeracy accomplishments throughout schooling.† ( Constructing the Curriculum I ) Numeracy has been highlighted as a nucleus accomplishment, as like literacy competent numeracy accomplishments are indispensable in mundane life, and as such to be able to lend efficaciously to society immature people should hold a good foundation in these accomplishments. Strong numeracy accomplishments provide immature people with better apprehension of the universe around them and are a footing for womb-to-tomb acquisition. The edifice of strong numeracy accomplishments throughout the course of study should give immature people â€Å"the assurance and competency in utilizing figure which will let persons to work out jobs, analyse information and do informed determinations based on calculations.† CfE bookletDrumheadIt has been shown that strong accomplishments in both literacy and numeracy benefits both the person and the state as a whole. The importance of these accomplishments is highlighted in the ALNIS study which states â€Å"Literacy and numeracy accomplishments are c ritical for grownups to accomplish the ends they set themselves at work, at place, in the community and as scholars. The personal effects of low literacy and numeracy accomplishments can be serious. The national effects for a modern, multicultural, competitory Scotland, and attempts to accomplish societal justness, are far reaching.† ( ALNIS, p 12 )Literacy in the schoolroomDuring placement SE1A, I paid peculiar attending to the literacy results defined by CfE. When lesson planning I integrated literacy results into all my categories be these reading composing speaking or hearing. In one category I used a picture to summarize chief points that had been taught throughout the subject. I asked to take down note sum uping the chief points of the subject, this would let me to estimate whether they had understood the chief learning purpose of the subject. I made certain to halt the picture at cardinal points to let the kids with slower cognitive or composing accomplishments clip to believe and compose. This exercising planned to better the kids ‘s hearing and note taking abilities as this is a of import accomplishment needed in the school and work environment. The kids were so asked to describe back what notes they had taken and why within groups. This exercising was besides developed to better at that place speaking accomplishments as they each had to separately describe back the notes they had taken. I found this exercising priceless as I rapidly realised that there was a broad scope of abilities within the category, as a whole the category found this undert aking hard. There were a figure of facets of the undertaking the kids found hard which arose during the plenary treatment, many of which arose from holding to watch the picture and compose down short concise notes. This undertaking showed me the true extend of the importance of distinction required in lessons, it besides highlighted that note pickings is a accomplishment that may non hold been taught in any deepness within the course of study. In future I will do certain that before transporting out an exercising like this that a important sum of clip is spent learning the accomplishment as I think it will profit students in the short and long term. The creative activity of a lab write up within a category is an first-class manner to better composing accomplishments. Every practical carried out by my categories is accompanied with an experimental write up. The usage of experimental write ups gives kids exposure to an unfamiliar manner of composing. I ever promote my students to compose up studies in a scientific mode with an purpose, hypothesis, consequences and decision. Before the write up I would inquire for suggestion as to how the study should be worded, followed by an illustration provided by myself. This got the kids thin inking about the construction and registry of the piece. In some instances I would inquire an person or group to show their findings to the category. In one category I split the category into four groups and asked each group to compose up the purpose, method and manner to enter consequences for the four different experiments. Once completed the group ‘s swapped studies and tried to transport out experiment utilizing the study they received. I will be go oning to utilize lab study composing as I think it does cover a broad scope of results for literacy, and when carried out good does prosecute students. In a S2 scientific discipline category I took, the students were required to retrieve a peculiar series of reactive metals. To do this easier to retrieve I encouraged the category to come up with acronym to assist them retrieve the series. Before we started I gave them a few illustrations of common acronyms they had likely used such l.o.l and o.m.g. this started a het argument as to the best acronym to utilize for the reactive metals. Each member of the category came up with their ain acronym some more suited than others, nevertheless all students did prosecute and there was a spot of temper in the lesson which is of import when learning some of the more proficient facets of scientific discipline. This undertaking got the kids activity believing about the right pick of words and the usage of their vocabulary, I would state the undertaking worked good and I will be utilizing the technique once more when seeking to assist the kids remember complex scientific sequences.

Dental Hygiene Research Essay

I.Introduction- Dental hygienists can be found in a variety of workplace settings, but Usually they work in private dental offices. II.1st body paragraph Overview – What exactly does a Dental Hygienist do and why is it important? A.1st Paragraph Supporting Details – They remove hard and soft deposits on teeth Take and develop x-rays, make impressions for casts†¦ B.1st Paragraph Supporting Details – Teach patients proper technique and strategies for good overall oral health. C.The American Heart Association researchers shared findings that professional dental care can reduce the risk of heart attack and stroke. D.1st Paragraph Supporting Details – Other similar jobs are Dentist and Dental assistant. III.2nd body paragraph Overview – Specific requirements and education needed to become a dental hygienist. A.2nd Paragraph Supporting Details– Each state has its own educational requirements. B.2nd Paragraph Supporting Details–A minimum of an associate’s degree in dental hygiene is needed to enter the occupation. C.Majority of college programs take at least 2 years to complete. D.A bachelors or master’s degree is required for teaching, research, or practice in public or school health programs. E.Areas of study are anatomy, physiology, radiography, and periodontology. IV.3rd body paragraph Overview – Advantages and disadvantages of the dental hygiene profession. A.3rd Paragraph Supporting Details- Personal satisfaction from helping all types of people. B.3rd Paragraph Supporting Details– Because of education and training, they are valuable members of the oral healthcare team. C.3rd Paragraph Supporting Details– Flexible scheduling. Full-time and part-time options are usually available. More than half of dental hygienists work part time allowing them to sometimes work for more than one employer. D.3rd Paragraph Supporting Details– Great demand for dental hygienists so employment opportunities are going to be available well into the future. V.Conclusion – While cleaning teeth is one of the skills a dental hygienist has been trained to do, it’s only one of the many

Football in Islam Essay

Introduction Football is considered to be the best popular sport in the world and became widespread after the Second World War. This game has gained importance these days all over the world and has come to be a significant phenomenon throughout the world. We see people becoming preoccupied with football matches more than being concerned with the fate of the Muslims throughout the world especially Muslims country in the war such Palestine and Syria. This preoccupation with football has also become the concern of newspapers and magazines, and football matches are aired regularly on TV screens. Whatever news or stories relating to football clubs and players is publicised and all of this attracts people to sport and to players. Furthermore, the people’s emptiness and forgetfulness cause them to forget the main purpose of their creation and the real goal (of their lives) that they have to realise. This doesn`t mean football only shows negative impact at all, but we as a Muslims must beware and not make football as only purpose of life. We should make football as a sport that makes us healthy and strong so that we can be a good Muslim and preparation for jihad. Show support and message to world on Palestine after scoring goal. Brief history of Football and its different types. Football is a game played between two teams which each have eleven players. They use a pumped up ball on a rectangular shaped playing field which has a goal at each end for each team. Each team tries to get the ball pass the goal-keeper of the opposing team in order to gain a point (goal) and in order to gain superiority over the rival by achieving more goals. There are many stories of how and where football originated. Some of these are as follows: a. A football game existed in China as early as 206 B. C. (before century) By 500 C. E(common era), round balls stuffed with hair were being used. b. A game called â€Å"harpaston† was played in ancient Greece where a ball was propelled by any means across the opponents’ goal line, by the 2nd century B. C. it had migrated to Rome. Romans may have taken the game throughout Europe and England. c. There was a football game in 7th century Japan. d. Mob games played in medieval Europe where an inflated animal bladder was kicked, punched or carried. However, the first clear signs that this game was being played was in England immediately after the sudden death of a goal-keeper on 23 February 1585 In the year 1863 the British Football Association (FA) was founded and it was the English who developed it and then it transferred from continent to continent throughout that century. It remained like this for around seventy years until 1930 and the English would always be victorious over smaller inexperienced teams. After this period the Latin America football teams emerged and surpassed the teams in Britain and elsewhere. Today there are over 209 states that are members of FIFA and in most European cities weekly betting over football results take place, such as with the betting agency Toto. FIFA was established in Paris on the 21st May 1904 and under its jurisdiction formed the World Cup Championships in Monte Video, Uruguay. There are also other championships such as the European Championships, which is similar to the World Cup Championships, and was established in 1958 . Both the World Cup and European competitions are played every four years. In addition to the well known variety of football, the harms of which we are about to make clear, there are other regional forms of similar games wherein inflated balls are used and are also known as â€Å"football†. Such games are played in the United States of America, Canada, Australia and Ireland, and they are 1. American football A very violent game indeed, it emerged in Harvard in 1872 and it was derived from the tradition of Rugby and named â€Å"football† whilst what is well known as football around the world is named â€Å"soccer† in America. Each team consists of eleven players and they all use helmets on top of their heads and wear special protective clothing. 2. Australian football This game was founded in 1868 , the pitches that are used are of an oval shape whilst the ball resembles that of a Rugby ball. Each team consists of eighteen players and substitutes and fifteen who play on the actual pitch. Every player has an opponent and as for the other three they act as moving elements. When the ball passes the centre of the goal between an outer and inner post then the team scores a point. If an attacking team is able to put the ball through the two in near posts (of a set of four posts) then they score six points. 3. Canadian football Generally it resembles American football and has the same terminologies along with it yet with some differing rules. Each team consists of 12 players instead of eleven1. Why football become epidemic? As we know, football game has been epidemics in people all over the world including Muslims not only for men but also women. It had been so due to several factors. Firstly, the individual Muslim, living in a non-Muslim country, constantly faces a dilemma with regard to the environment in which he lives. In a country like South Africa where the Muslim community is a minority, it is not surprising that alien ideologies are unfortunately allowed to erode the Islamic code of life. The individual Muslim needs to be firm and strong in belief in order to avoid the various sources of temptation within this un-Islamic environment. Unfortunately, erroneous dictates of foreign cultures have become norms within the Muslim community. For example, perceptions that this world is an end in itself and as such life should be enjoyed by engaging in such activities which provide for maximum satisfaction of the desires. Worldly pleasures have gained priority over the more important abode of the Hereafter (Akhirah). In the sporting context, Muslims have also started believing that peace of mind can only be achieved through football. The Western media is flooded and obsessed with football. Almost every newspaper and many magazines make some sort of reference to football. Television is swamped with football. This widespread coverage of football has revolutionized Muslim homes. The ease of access to football due to television is a major reason why football has reached alarming proportions within Muslim society. Secondly, Muslim parents, teachers and even some Ulama openly encourage sport, without setting any limitations. The interests in football shown by Muslim adults together with a culture of hero worshipping of sportsmen have made children falsely believe that football is totally acceptable under all conditions. The common Muslim is seldom discouraged to become a football fanatic. Thirdly, football has become a norm within Muslim society. The Muslim who shows little interest in football becomes marginalised in public discussions. Muslims believe that football is an acceptable means of public interaction2. Benefits of Football. The benefits and advantages of football in today’s times have been classified in terms of physical, social, economic factors. a. Physical Benefits 1. Health and fitness Playing football is one of the important factors which contribute to good health. Many studies have been carried out in order to determine the effect of football on health. Generally, it has been shown that football, through physical exercise, can improve posture, promote physical fitness and good health. Modern medicine has also shown that playing footballs can prevent certain diseases such as obesity, heart disease and osteoporosis. From an Islamic perspective, physical fitness and physical strength are qualities which need to be developed, as can be seen from the following explanation by Moulana Ashraf Ali Thanwi (Rahmatullah alaih):†Hadhrat Abu Hurairah (Radiallahu anhu) narrates that Rasulullah (Sallallahualaihi wasallam) said: â€Å"A strong Believer is better than a weak Believer. † â€Å"This Hadith speaks of physical strength as is clear from the explanation of the hadith by the authorities of Deen. Physical power and strength are abilities which Allah Ta’ala loves in his servants. Physical strength has to be developed by Believers. Since this is desirable, it follows that it is a duty upon one to preserve one’s health and develop one’s strength while at the same time it will be un-Islamic to resort to such practices which are harmful and injurious to one’s health. Excessive eating, excessive sleeping and excessive indulgence in sexual relations are destructive to one’s health. In the same way, excessive reduction in food and sleep produces physical weakness. ‘3 2. Preparation for Jihad The maintenance of good health, the development of power and bodily strength are important in preparing for Jihad. Even some Muslim scholars had a opinion that one may participate in modern footballs if certain conditions are met and the aim is to build the physical and mental strengthens in preparation for Jihad. 3. Relaxation of the body and mind Most of the Ulama agree that relaxing the mind and body is sanctioned in Islam. This relaxation is beneficial for the individual, in that the object of life which is to worship Allah can be performed more earnestly and with greater devotion. b. Social Benefits 1. Development of Social Skills Football is often accredited with developing social skills in the individual. These include such skills as courtesy, fair play, and teamwork. While this assertion may be true, it has to be pointed out that football is not the only means of acquiring such skills. Following the lifestyle of our Holy Prophet (Sallallahu alaihi wasallam) and living an Islamic life from an early age, can inculcate in a Muslim all the social skills that are required. c. Economic Benefits 1. Employment Football has become a major industry due to the level of interest shown by the public. Hence, there are a significant number of people in the world today, who rely totally on football to make a living. Avenues for earning wealth from purely football sources include the sale of tickets, marketing and sale of footballs equipment and clothing, operation of footballs facilities, researching into sport science, and publishing of specialized footballs magazines and journals. Some may say that the income generated from these avenues is not Halal according to the Shariah because this involves sanctioning of the many harms of football. However, it may be argued that a Muslim who sells a bow and arrow, for example, with the intention that the Muslim community may use it to train for Jihad is surely not transgressing any of the laws of Shariah. Harms of football. 1. Exposure of the aurah (parts of the body which has to be necessarily covered). In football there is a considerable amount of exposing the ‘awrah. If it involves exposing the thighs and the people look at them and people are looking at each others thighs, then this is not permissible as the thighs are from the ‘awrah and covering the ‘awrah is obligatory except from the wives and concubines, in accordance with the statement of the prophet (sallallaahu alayhi wassallam):â€Å"Guard your ‘awrah, except from your wife or what your rights hands possess. †The proofs that the thigh is from the ‘awrah are many, from them: what has been verified from imams Maalik, Ahmad, Aboo Daawood, Turmithee, Ibn Hibbaan and al-Haakim from Jarhad al-Aslamee(radi Allaahu ‘anhu) that the Prophet (sallallaahu alayhi wassallam) passed by him and his thigh was exposed. The prophet (sallallaahualayhi wassallam) said: â€Å"Cover your thigh as it is from the ‘awrah. †4 What has also been verified by Aboo Daawood and others from ‘Alee (radi Allaahu ‘anhu) , the Messenger of Allah said: â€Å"Do not expose your thigh and do not look at the thigh of the living of the dead. †5. If this is known, then looking at other peoples ‘awrah is impermissible yet this is what takes place in football matches today. There is not a match where the thighs are not exposed and the ‘awrah of people are not discussed, this is the case even with female sports! Female can only playing football provided that all the spectator including coach and football stuff are woman. Futhermore, beautiful women appear on the TV screens as advertisements in order to cover the costs of broadcasters or other companies. 2. Foul play. Modern soccer has developed into a war between players. Often, during the course of play, one player purposefully injures another by kicking, tripping and even punching. To prevent a player from a scoring a goal, a defender will use illegal tactics to stop him. This may cause severe physical injury. Can these kinds of barbaric deeds be called sport? 3. Spectator Problems Crowd trouble has become synonymous with football. Within the last 30 years, there have been many cases of crowd violence where scores of spectators have been killed or injured. Soccer hooliganism has become prevalent due to uncivilised behaviour which is closely related to alcohol, music and fanatics. The impulse which stimulates action from a crowd frequently turns a peaceful crowd into a maddened mob where violence, hatred and revenge may prevail. The following examples clearly illustrate the extent of violence and crowd problems associated with football: a. 1964 – More than 300 people were killed and more than 500 were injured in a riot in Lima, Peru after a goal was disallowed in a match between Peru and Argentina. b. 1984 – During the European Cup final between Liverpool and Juventus, 39 people were killed and more than 400 were injured due to crowd violence. This was due to rioting Liverpool fans who were drunk and armed with sticks, iron bars and bottles4. c. 1989 – 94 people were killed and about 150 seriously injured during the FA Cup semi-final between Liverpool and Nottingham Forest. This occurred as thousands of people, some of whom were drunk, began rushing and pushing into the stadium. As a result of the overcrowding, thousands of supporters were crushed into the perimeter fencing, which had been put there to prevent hooligans from invading the pitch5. Apart from these cases, there have been numerous cases of spectators invading the pitch, attacking players and stewards, looting and generally uncivilised behaviour. 4. Football fanatics. Football had becomes a means to divide the ummah and create enemity and hatred between individuals in it, wherein vile partisanship to different sports teams is common. Thus this person encourages and supports one team and that person encourages and supports another, to the extent that the people of one family split up amongst themselves. This one follows a team and that one follows another team and the matter does not stop at mere support for teams, rather the followers of a winning team begin to make sarcastic comments about the losing team and at the end of it is argumentation and scuffling amongst supporters, which leads to people becoming wounded and fighting resulting in people dying, the victims of  football! The organisers of the world cup final between Brazil and Uruguay on July 16 1950 at the Maracanaa stadium in Rio de Janeiro in Brazil, were ompelled to make a hole thirteen meters wide and a meter and a half deep to protect the players from the crowds and vice versa8. 5. Zionist conspiration. Football competitions have become destructive elements that are used by the enemies of Islam, as what they encourage attaches honour to the ummah. As now the ummah, in the name of different sports including football, wastes considerable money and time. Instead of the ummah being occupied with beneficial actions and beneficial manufactures, the ummah has become within the rank of developed countries, from the backward nations and countries. Furthermore, the ummah needs to become occupied with the thought of struggling against its enemies, this issue of which is of great importance. Another thing that emphasises this is what is found in the Protocols of the Elders of Zion9 under protocol thirteen: â€Å"In order to keep the masses in misguidance, not knowing what is going on behind or in front of them, we will increase in averting their minds by way of a variety of amusements, humorous games and different types of sports, along with vain talk to nourish their tastes and desires. Furthermore, we hope to increase in the building of fine palaces and beautified structures. We will also produce publications that call to art competitions and sport. † By observing what the magazines and newspapers spread we find amazing figures regarding the fees spent on transferring players from team to team. 36 These figures even reach their tens of thousands not to mention the amount of money spent on coaches, managers, football pitches and broadcasting, and likewise all of the money that the spectators pay. For example, billionaire from Arabic country buy big club such as Manchester City and used the money for player transaction and advertising the club whilst some Islamic country starve and suffer from war. Conclusion It is not said that football is totally unbeneficial at all. Nowaday, Muslim professional football player are increasing especially in Europe region and become key player of a big club. In any condition, they should place their religion as a priority. Sevilla’s player, Freddie Kanoute has showed a very good example of Muslim footballer and role model to other professional player. He fast and play even during ramadhan and donate large portion of his salary for the Muslim charity in his country, Mali10. We also as a Muslim can get involved in football either participating or just watching provided that we had settled and not neglected other important needs as a Muslim such as salah, respecting our parents and have a good relationship with others. One must weigh between benefits and harm before take any action. Muslim football celebration after scoring a goal. Female Muslims also can play football with hijab. References. 1. Reilly, Thomas; Gilbourne, D.†Science and football: a review of applied research in the football code† published in 2003. Journal of Sports Science 21: 693–705. 2. Mufti Ahmed E. Bemat. , Islam and Games,Tadkeshwar, Surat, Gujrat, India, translated into English from Gujrati by Prof Murtaz Husain F. Quraishi, Navsari, Gujrat, India,(1989). 3. (Hadhrat Maulana Ashraf Ali Thanvi (Rahmatullah alaih), Hayatul Muslimeen, Prepared by Mujlisul Ulama of South Africa, Port Elizabeth, p. 109 ) . 4. Authenticated by al-Bukhaaree in his saheeh (vol.1, 478) ;Ahmad in al-Musnad (volume. 3,478) ; Aboo Daawood in as-sunan,hadeeth no 4014 ; Tirmidhee in al-Jaami’, hadeeth no. 2798; al-Haakim in al-Mustadrak (vol. 4, 180);Ibn Hibbaan in as-Saheeh, hadeeth no. 1710 – al-Ihsaan. 5. Authenticated by Aboo Daawood in as-Sunan, hadeeth no. 3 l40 and no. 4015; Ahmad in al-Musnad (vol. 1, 146). The hadeeth is saheeh. 6. Nawrat, C. , Hutchings, S. , The Sunday Times Illustrated History of Football, Hamlyn, London, (1994), pp. 125-269 7. Barrett, Norman. , The Daily Telegraph Football Chronicle, Stanley Paul and Company Limited, London, (1994), pp. 226, 232 8. Nawrat, C. , Hutchings, S. , The Sunday Times Illustrated History of Football, Hamlyn, London, (1994), p. 151 9. Daniel Pipes ; Conspiracy: How the Paranoid Style Flourishes and Where It Comes From (The Free Press – Simon & Schuster)(2007) p. 86–87 10. Kanoute balance between football and faith during Ramadhan. www. kickitout. org/952. php (accessed 26 March 2013).

New deveopment in textile industry - article summary

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Energy Drinks Introduction Essay Example for Free

Energy Drinks Introduction Essay Energy drinks refer to beverages that contain, besides calories, caffeine in combination with other presumed energy-enhancing ingredients such as taurine, herbal extracts, and B vitamins. They ? rst appeared in Europe and Asia in the 1960s in response to consumer demand for a dietary supplement that would result in increased energy (Reissig and others 2009). In 1962, a Japanese company, Taisho Pharmaceuticals, launched Lipovitan D, one of the very 1st energy drinks, which is still dominating the Japanese market. Lipovitan D contains B vitamins, taurine, and ginseng, which are all frequent constituents of mainstream energy drinks with the intended purpose of providing the consumer with sustained energy, and to reduce mental and physical fatigue (Taisho Pharmaceutical Co. Ltd. 2009). Energy drinks did not make their way into the U. S. market until 1997 when Red Bull was ? rst introduced, which originated and was initially launched 10 y earlier in Austria (Reissig and others 2009). Since the 1960s, the energy drink market has grown into a multibillion-dollar business which has been reported as being the fastest growing segment in the beverage industry since bottled water (Agriculture and AgriFood Canada 2008). Energy drinks have established a viable position in the beverage market as evidenced by their commonplace consumption in the morning, afternoon, and night, not only by the general consumer, but those of age 18 to 34 in particular (Lal 2007). Athletes initially were the primary consumers of energy drinks. However, as the energy drink market grew and expanded into various niche markets, athletes are no longer the primary target. Today, the majority of energy drinks are targeted at teenagers and young adults 18 to 34 y old due to this generation’s on-the-go lifestyle and receptiveness to advertisements for these types of products (Lal 2007). While the energy drinks and shots market may be a small component of the non-alcoholic beverage industry, it is perhaps the most dynamic market—growing 60% from 2008-2012 according to Packaged Facts estimates in the all-new research report Energy Drinks and Shots: U. S. Market Trends. In 2012, total U. S. sales for the energy drinks and shots market was worth more than $12. 5 billion. Intense competition surrounds the beverage industry as marketers seek to increase market penetration and consumption frequency through positive alignment as a healthy and/or functional beverage. Thirst quencher/sports drinks remain the most formidable competitor for energy drinks as this type of beverage attracts a large constituency of energy drink users. Energy drinks are subject to competition from other energy-boosting beverages such as coffee and tea beverages, as well as an increasing number of new product innovations that tap into the energy trend but are outside of the beverage industry. At present, energy drinks have the lowest consumption rates of any RTD beverage—a point which reflects the market’s relative infancy but also its growth potential. Experian Simmons analysis shows the growth trend of this market, with the incidence of energy drink usage among adults rising from nearly 13% in 2006 to 17% in 2012. In addition, there is a modest segment of heavy users: 5% of adults consume energy drinks 5-7 times per month and less than 2% drink energy drinks 10 or more times. Packaged Facts estimates that energy drinks account for some 78% market share, followed by 18% for energy shots, and energy drink mixes (roughly 4%) in 2012. A few select marketers dominate the energy drinks and shots market. This demonstrates the first mover advantage in each category. The result is a market that is highly dependent on a handful of key brands, namely Red Bull, Monster Energy, 5-Hour Energy, and Rockstar Energy.

Automobile and Cycling Essay Example for Free

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Working hours directive

Working hours directive The European Working Time Directive (EWTD) was adopted in 1993, and came into force in the UK under the Working Time Regulations 1998 as a safety measure, because of the recognised negative effects on health and safety of excessively long working hours. It also provides for statutory minimum rest-break entitlements, annual leave and working arrangements for night workers. The EWTD is also designed to help work life balance by limiting long hours, which is both stressful and harmful to health. For example, some research has shown that driving while tired provided similar results to driving after having drunk alcohol. The EWTD regulations place a legal requirement on employers, which means that if it is not implemented, national governments will be liable for payment of heavy financial penalties and potentially sanctions from the European Union (EU). There are no rights to work long hours, but there is legal protection to protect workers rights to reasonable working environment and conditions, and to family life. The main features of the EWTD are; no more than 48 hours work per week; 11 hours continuous rest in 24 hours; 24 hours continuous rest in seven days (or 48 hours in 14 days); a 20 minute break in work periods of over 6 hours; four weeks annual leave; and for night workers, an average of no more than 8 hours work in 24 hours over the reference period. The EWTD was considered by the UK Government as an issue of working conditions, not as a health and safety issue. As a result, in 1993, the UK negotiated an opt-out clause, which allows Member States not to apply the limit to working hours under certain conditions, such as: prior agreement of the individual, no negative fall out from refusing to opt-out, and records kept of working hours of those that have opted out. The European Commission announced on 23rd September 2004 its controversial proposal to update the 1993 Working Time Directive. This will most likely mean the UK will have to abandon its opt-out clause. If this is the case, and working hours are restricted, there will be many advantages and disadvantages for both employees and employers. The advantages and disadvantages range from health and safety issues to financial issues. The advantages for employees are; firstly, no longer shall employees be pressured into signing a contract with an opt-out clause stating if required, they must work extra time. This will also stop a lot of employers blackmailing potential and/or current employees, which can be often the case. For example, an employer may say to a potential employee, that if they do not sign the opt-out clause contract then they cannot have the job. Health and safety issues will improve for employees, because when they are forced to work longer than what they want/can, then they will inevitably feel ill. For example it is very common for workers to have headaches, muscular problems, stomachaches, stress, sleeping problems and irritability from just simply working too much. Not only improving your health, being limited to a maximum of 48 hour week, will vastly improve a workers family life who had previously been working 60 hours a week. Having a four-week holiday will also be beneficial, as apposed to a lesser holiday the employee most likely used to have. Also, as a result of being more healthy and less stressed, this should improve the workers actual efficiency/quality of work, because the worker will not feel as tired or overloaded with work. Employees who are over worked, often find it very hard to manage their financial issues, due to lack of time. So by limiting employees to a maximum of 48 hours work a week, will help prevent them overlooking their financial matters. One main advantage for women in particular, is the clear link between the lack of women in managerial positions and long working hours. The culture of long working hours in higher professional and managerial jobs is an obstacle to the upward mobility of women, and sustains gender segregation in the work place. Therefore by limiting the working hours of a week will vastly improve the chances for women to improve their status. Flexible working time patterns and part time work have an important impact in this area as well. The disadvantages for employees are mainly financial, because they will no longer be able to earn as much over-time pay as what that may like. This will be especially frustrating for employees who are willing to do extra work in order to save money for their future/family etc. As a result, this could have an advert affect on their moral, because they may find themselves with nothing to do, when they could be quite easily doing more work in order to earn more money. The advantages for employers are; that their employees will be more efficient and motivated; therefore the employees should be more productive than before, thus helping deadlines to be achieved etc. Having a more relaxed workforce will also lead to a better work relationship between the employer and his subordinates (as well as between the employees and themselves), which will therefore improve the communication within the workplace. Given that the employees will be more relaxed and healthy, as a result they will be less absent from work due to illness. So therefore, again the employers objectives will be more likely to be completed, and the productivity of the employees should increase. The disadvantages for employers are that in the past, they would be able to say to their employees that they wanted a certain objective completed by a certain time, for example ‘by the end of the day. This will no longer be an option for employers, as employees will not be able to work longer than 48 hours (or whatever their contract states) a week. Employers may find they will have to hire extra staff in order to get more work done, or pay for employees to do overtime (those that can!) This could end up costing a substantial amount of money; more than what the employer spent in the past on his workforce. As a result budgets will need to be rethought in the future, and also possibly cutbacks will be made if money is an issue. Employers will not like this fact, especially as in the past, they were often getting their employees to put in extra hours of work for free! The situation in the UK, is that the main characteristics of the system governing working time have not really changed since the Directive was introduced. This is largely due to the opt-out clause. Latest figures show that about 16% of the workforce currently works more that 48 hours per week, compared with a figure of 15% at the beginning of the 1990s. About 8% of the workforce say they work over 55 hours per week, 3.2% over 60 hours per week and 1% over 70 hours per week. The UK is the only Member States where weekly working time has increased over the last decade. Approximately 46% of people that say they work over 48 hours a week, are in managerial positions and are covered by the exemption relating to managers. Looking at other countries, ranked by collectively agreed working hours, Germany idles in the bottom third in the EU. In 2003 the contractual annual working time in West Germany was 1,643 hours (East Germany 1,722). The EU-15 average was 1,708. In Germany working time is a problem, particularly for manufacturing. In some sectors, such as metal and engineering or printing, the 35-hour week is standard for a large proportion of the workforce, even for employees salaried above the collectively agreed pay scale. Overall, the collectively agreed working week in West Germany averages 37.5 hours. However, the actual time worked is approximately 6% longer than the collectively agreed hours, and is close to the EU-15 average. This is due to overtime and the fact that an increasing proportion of the workforce, especially in small and medium sized businesses, already work longer than collectively agreed. In the SIMAP and Jaeger cases, the rulings of the European Court of Justice had major financial and organisational implications for the health sector in the EU and following the rulings, France and Germany applied the opt-out to their health sectors. Measures were also put in place to allow opting-out in the hotel and catering industry. However until recently, the UK was the only Member State to have a generalised opt-out clause (Cyprus and Malta took up the option last May), and it is clearly in the firing line of the European Commission who claims that there is evidence that the opt-out is being misapplied, in particular that workers are being pressured into opting-out. The debate has been furious in the UK, fuelled by the Confederation of British Industry (CBI), who claims that it should be every workers choice to decide on how long he/she works, and the Trade Union Congress (TUC) who argue that it spreads an unjustified long hours culture. Regardless of the fact, people are working much more than recommended, (which you would assume was in order to save more money), according to the latest research people are squandering away their earnings on treats to reward themselves for their hard work. A quarter of people say they regularly work more than their contracted hours, however almost half admit they often waste money on treats they do not need, with 30 percent of workers wasting away at least  £100 a month. As a direct result, people are usually too busy to try to keep track of their finances, and get a shock when their statements arrive. People are spending so much of their time working, it seems a shame they are not planning for their future and making the most of their money. I think Britain should be compelled by the EU to abandon its opt-out clause under the EWTD, and thus restrict its workings hours, because people are working for far too long nowadays and as a result not only does their health suffer, but their work suffers as well. At the moment, with the current opt-out clause in Britain, almost one in four men in England and Wales are working more than 48 hours a week! The longest hours are worked in the City of London, Kensington and Chelsea and Westminster, according to Britains General Union, who say nearly a quarter of men are exceeding the 48-hour limit set by the EU. Therefore, as a result, the UK businessmen are hindering British productivity by working the kind of hours that burn out their enthusiasm, creativity, innovation and forward planning. You simply cannot be at your best if you are continually working more than 48 hours a week. Not only are they hindering the British productivity, but also by persisting in allowing people to work longer than they are capable of they are holding back on the UKs competitiveness with Europe. The Government is burning out Britain by practically encouraging longer working hours. They argue that more than a million people would lose out on paid overtime if they had to stop working extra hours. Or is the Government just worried about the amount of revenue they will loose out on?

James Fenimore Cooper :: essays research papers

James Fenimore Cooper was born in Burlington, New Jersey on September 15, 1789. He was the eleventh of twelve children born to William and Elizabeth Cooper. When James was one year old the family moved to the frontier, and his father established the settlement of Cooperstown at the head of Susquehanna River. 	Cooper attended a private preparatory school at Albany, New York, and was then admitted to Yale in 1803. He was expelled from there during his junior year because of a silly prank. His family allowed him to join the navy as a midshipman, but he soon found that more discipline was present in the Navy than at Yale. In 1810 Cooper took a furlough, and never returned to active duty. 	After Cooper's father passed in 1809, he received a nice inheritance. Cooper quickly squandered his inheritance, and at thirty was on the verge of bankruptcy. He decided to try his hand at writing as a career. Carefully modeling his work after Sir Walter Scott's successful Waverly Novels, he wrote his first novel in 1820 called Precaution. A domestic comedy set in England, lost money, but Cooper had discovered his vocation. 	Cooper established his reputation after his second novel, The Spy, and in his third book, the autobiographical Pioneers (1823), Cooper introduced the character of Natty Bumppo, a uniquely American personification of rugged individualism and the pioneer spirit. A second book featuring Bumppo, The Last of the Mohicans written in 1826, quickly became the most widely read work of the day, solidifying Cooper's popularity in the U.S. and in Europe. Set during the French and Indian War, The Last of the Mohicans chronicles the massacre of the colonial garrison at Fort William Henry and a fictional kidnapping of two pioneer sisters. Cooper knew few Indians, so he drew on a Moravian missionary's account of two opposing tribes; the Delawares and the "Mingos." Although this characterization was filled with inaccuracies, the dual image of the opposing tribes allowed Cooper to create a lasting image of the Indian that became a part of the American consciousness for almost two cen turies. His public was simultaneously touched romantically at the doomed Indians' fate and justified in abetting their extermination. The hero of the novel, Natty Bumppo, was incredibly popular, a rebel heroically opposed to industrial society, he was a hero who never married or changed his ideals. 	Cooper was a prolific writer, publishing 32 novels, 12 works of nonfiction, a play and numerous pamphlets and articles.

Introduction to the Scientific Method :: essays research papers

Introduction to the Scientific Method The scientific method is the process by which scientists, collectively and over time, endeavor to construct an accurate (that is, reliable, consistent and non-arbitrary) representation of the world. Recognizing that personal and cultural beliefs influence both our perceptions and our interpretations of natural phenomena, we aim through the use of standard procedures and criteria to minimize those influences when developing a theory. As a famous scientist once said, "Smart people (like smart lawyers) can come up with very good explanations for mistaken points of view." In summary, the scientific method attempts to minimize the influence of bias or prejudice in the experimenter when testing an hypothesis or a theory. I. The scientific method has four steps 1. Observation and description of a phenomenon or group of phenomena. 2. Formulation of an hypothesis to explain the phenomena. In physics, the hypothesis often takes the form of a causal mechanism or a mathematical relation. 3. Use of the hypothesis to predict the existence of other phenomena, or to predict quantitatively the results of new observations. 4. Performance of experimental tests of the predictions by several independent experimenters and properly performed experiments. If the experiments bear out the hypothesis it may come to be regarded as a theory or law of nature (more on the concepts of hypothesis, model, theory and law below). If the experiments do not bear out the hypothesis, it must be rejected or modified. What is key in the description of the scientific method just given is the predictive power (the ability to get more out of the theory than you put in; see Barrow, 1991) of the hypothesis or theory, as tested by experiment. It is often said in science that theories can never be proved, only disproved. There is always the possibility that a new observation or a new experiment will conflict with a long-standing theory. II. Testing hypotheses As just stated, experimental tests may lead either to the confirmation of the hypothesis, or to the ruling out of the hypothesis. The scientific method requires that an hypothesis be ruled out or modified if its predictions are clearly and repeatedly incompatible with experimental tests. Further, no matter how elegant a theory is, its predictions must agree with experimental results if we are to believe that it is a valid description of nature. In physics, as in every experimental science, "experiment is supreme" and experimental verification of hypothetical predictions is absolutely necessary.

The Uncompromising Code of Bartleby the Scrivener Essay -- Bartleby Sc

The Uncompromising Code of Bartleby the Scrivener  Ã‚     Ã‚   There are certain social codes that we are expected to follow. They are too numerous and obscure to know-but for the most part, they don't need to be known. The unspoken, unwritten set of rules we are obligated to live by are subtly imbued in us from birth. When we live outside those boundaries and follow our own desires, we are walking on thin ice. An eccentric choice in wardrobe or unusual habits can make the difference between being considered an individual who "thinks outside of the box," or just a plain old lunatic. When someone refuses to adhere to our social codes, they become suspect. But what drives them, enables them to refuse in the first place? Melville seemed to have a good idea of what it feels like to be in such a position. The American Tradition in Literature discusses how "like Bartleby, Melville was a 'scrivener,' or writer. Melville also refused to copy out the ideas of others, or even his own, in response to popular demand. He too 'preferred' to withdraw"(Perkins 1564). So far it sounds like Melville was almost certainly creating something "out of himself." Additionally, Melville "distrusted the economic compulsion of society; he resented the financial assistance of his wife's father"(1564). This story comes from an artist reliant on only himself, true to his own nature. Bartleby is merely an exaggeration of this individual way of thinking. Melville presents a distorted image of independence from civil constraint, one that goes so far that it results in a sort of social anarchy. But considering the scrivener's background, it isn't hard to understand how he came to be such a social miscreant. Bartleby comes to his employer from a dead l... ...o the boss every once in a while-or to our spouse, our family, people on the street. No, you can't cut into my lane. No, you can't check out ahead of me even though you've only got the one can of beans. No, you can't change the channel, or ask me to pick the children up from practice. How easy to give up. How easy to let the responsibilities rest with another. We already know what rewards the other men have received for their admirable and semi-socially acceptable behavior. Neurosis, alcoholism, ulcers, and envy. All things considered, it seems that Bartleby is the most sound of them all. Works Cited Perkins, Barbara, and George Perkins, ed. The American Tradition in Literature. Boston:McGraw-Hill College, 1999. Perry, Dennis R. "'Ah, humanity': Compulsion Neurosis in Melville's 'Bartleby'". Studies in Short Fiction 24.4 (1987): 407-415.   

Malaria in Cuban Children and how it differs from children in US

Malaria is a disease cause by a parasite that is transmitted from one person to another by the bite of an Anopheles mosquito. These are female mosquitoes that are most persistent in the tropics and sub-tropic parts of the world Such as Africa Asia and USA Symptoms of malaria may include headache, chills, muscle ache, fever, and malaise. Malaria’s early development stages resemble those of flue which only develop between 6-8 days after being bitten by an infected mosquito. It is estimated that 40% of the world population is at risk of malaria and that it claims an estimated one million lives annually (World Health Organization 1989). Malaria can e prevented through the use of anti-malaria drugs, use of treated mosquitoes nets, oiling others (http://www.cigna.com/healthinfo/hw119119.html). Malarial cases are rare in the US as compared to Cuba. This is because Cuba is a tropic country whose majority population lives below the poverty line. Hence cannot afford basic medication or preventive measures such as the use of mosquito’s nets. On the other had malaria infection in the US is detected mostly among travelers and hence rare. Malaria affects all segments of the population but most severely children, women, and people living with emergency cases such as HIV/ AIDS. Malaria in children causes complications such as paralysis, recurrent fewer, Anemia, blindness, epilepsy and cerebral malaria. If not well treated malaria can affect the subsequent health and development of child; For instance it is estimated that 7% of Cuban children who survive cerebral malaria are left with permanent neurological problems such as spastics, blindness, speech problem and low concentration which affects their performance in school. This has been adverse due to inadequate treatment brought about by poverty; forces people to prescribe their own medication, lack of drugs and expertise in hospitals. (http://lib.store.yahoo.net/lib/elitedeals/disease.htm). Malaria effects on pregnant women are higher in Cuba than the US. For instance only 35 cases were reported in the US in 2000 while more than 10, 000 cases were reported in Cuba. Malarial medications are limited for pregnant women and also children. These infections can lead to death of a woman and her fetus – unborn fetus may get the disease from the mother; thus for this reason pregnant women should not travel to areas where they can get the disease. Some of the adverse effects of malaria during pregnancy include increased chances of still birth, intrauterine growth, retardation and low birth weight of less than 2500 grammes.( http://www.traveldoctor.info/diseases/1.html ) A malarial infection varies depending on someone’s body immunity. For this reason the elderly and those with emergency diseases such as HIV/AIDS are severely affected as their levels of immunity are low, hence increases their chances of infection. Malaria prevalence in Cuban children is high than in the US. This is because of the weak health infrastructure of the country, civil unrests and the widespread resistance to malarial drugs among other causes. However, Malaria infection reduced by 9.0% in 2000 in the US due to change in disease transmission and increased / effective use of anti-malarial chemoprophylaxis. Poverty in Cuba has increase child infection as majority cannot afford basic prevention measures such as mosquito nets, clearing of bushes, and oiling of stagnant water. In addition houses in the rural areas are built of mud unlike the US, which allows mosquitoes to freely enter and leave the houses. In conclusion malaria effects are more severe in Cuban children than in America children as America children have access to free medication and can afford basic preventive measures. On the other hands Poverty of most households and inadequacy of drugs inhibits complete treatment of malaria in Cuban children which affect these development. REFERENCES http://www.traveldoctor.info/diseases/1.html http://lib.store.yahoo.net/lib/elitedeals/disease.htm Maria, G.(2007) Malaria. Retrieved February 25, 2008 from http://www.cigna.com/healthinfo/hw119119.html